Biology › Section F · Meiosis and Mendelian heredity › Topic F.4
Characteristics and traits
Mendel's peas hid two layers of information: the visible trait (yellow or green seeds) and the underlying alleles that encode it. Separating phenotype from genotype and tracking alleles through Punnett squares is the core skill of genetics. This topic also covers where reality bends Mendel's rules: incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, sex linkage, and lethal alleles.
In this topic
- Genes, alleles, and the diploid setup
- Phenotype, genotype, and the notation
- The Punnett square and the monohybrid cross
- Worked example: a test cross with three round peas
- Pedigree analysis: the human test cross substitute
- Beyond dominance: incomplete and codominance
- Multiple alleles and dominance hierarchies
- X-linked traits and hemizygosity
- Worked example: an X-linked cross, traced
- Lethal alleles
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Key takeaways
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