The civil rights movement
From the 1950s, Black Americans and their allies challenged segregation and discrimination through courts, protests, and political pressure, winning historic victories.
Brown v. Board of Education
In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated public schools were unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson's 'separate but equal'. Thurgood Marshall of the NAACP argued the case. Many Southern states resisted; in 1957, President Eisenhower sent federal troops to protect the 'Little Rock Nine' integrating a high school in Arkansas.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott
In December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. Black residents boycotted the buses for 381 days, led by a young minister, Martin Luther King Jr. In 1956 the Supreme Court ruled bus segregation unconstitutional.
Nonviolent direct action
Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi, activists used nonviolent protest. In 1960, students began sit-ins at segregated lunch counters in Greensboro, North Carolina, and formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In 1961, Freedom Riders rode buses through the South to challenge segregated terminals and were brutally attacked.
Birmingham and the March on Washington
In 1963, protests in Birmingham, Alabama, met police dogs and fire hoses, televised nationwide. King's Letter from Birmingham Jail defended civil disobedience. In August 1963, about 250,000 people joined the March on Washington, where King gave his 'I Have a Dream' speech.
Landmark laws
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin in employment and public accommodations. After violent attacks on marchers at Selma, Alabama, in 1965 ('Bloody Sunday'), Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, banning literacy tests and allowing federal oversight of elections in areas with histories of discrimination.
Black Power and urban unrest
Some activists, frustrated by slow progress and continuing violence, embraced Black Power, emphasising pride, self-reliance, and self-defence; Malcolm X was an influential voice before his assassination in 1965. Riots erupted in many cities, such as Watts (1965) and Detroit (1967). King was assassinated in Memphis in April 1968.
Other movements for rights
The civil rights movement inspired others. The women's movement, sparked partly by Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963), pushed for equal pay and opportunities. Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta organised farmworkers. The American Indian Movement demanded treaty rights. The 1969 Stonewall uprising in New York helped launch the modern LGBTQ rights movement.
Worked example
Before 1965, in parts of Mississippi, fewer than 10% of eligible Black adults were registered to vote because of literacy tests, intimidation, and violence. After the Voting Rights Act sent federal examiners and banned literacy tests, Black registration in Mississippi rose to about 60% by 1968, showing how federal law could change local practice.
Key takeaways
Brown v. Board (1954) outlawed school segregation; resistance led to federal intervention at Little Rock. The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) made King a leader. Sit-ins and Freedom Rides used nonviolent direct action. Birmingham and the 1963 March on Washington built pressure. The Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965) were landmark victories. Black Power, urban unrest, and King's assassination followed. Other groups launched their own rights movements.
Flashcard
1954, school segregation unconstitutional
Check your understanding
Which 1954 Supreme Court case ruled school segregation unconstitutional?