The Cold War begins
After 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union, former allies, became rivals in a global contest of ideology, power, and nuclear weapons.
Origins of the Cold War
The US and USSR emerged from World War II as superpowers with opposing systems: capitalism and democracy versus communism and one-party rule. Disputes over Eastern Europe, where Soviet forces installed communist governments, broke their wartime alliance. Winston Churchill warned in 1946 that an 'iron curtain' had descended across Europe.
Containment
Diplomat George Kennan argued the US should contain Soviet expansion. The Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged support for free peoples resisting subjugation, starting with aid to Greece and Turkey. The Marshall Plan (1948) gave about 13 billion dollars to rebuild Western Europe, strengthening economies and reducing communism's appeal.
Berlin and NATO
When the Soviets blockaded West Berlin in 1948, the US and Britain supplied the city by air for almost a year in the Berlin Airlift. In 1949, the US joined NATO, its first peacetime military alliance, pledging mutual defence. The Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. In 1961, East Germany built the Berlin Wall.
The nuclear arms race
The Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb in 1949, ending the US monopoly. Both sides developed hydrogen bombs and ever larger arsenals. The doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD) held that neither side would launch a nuclear attack because both would be destroyed. Americans built fallout shelters and practised 'duck and cover' drills.
The Korean War
In 1949, communists won China's civil war under Mao Zedong. In 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea. A US-led United Nations force fought back; China entered the war when UN forces approached its border. The war ended in an armistice in 1953 near the original dividing line at the 38th parallel, leaving Korea divided to this day.
The Red Scare at home
Fears of communist infiltration led to loyalty programmes for federal employees, investigations by the House Un-American Activities Committee, and the Hollywood blacklist. Senator Joseph McCarthy made sweeping, unproven accusations of communists in government; 'McCarthyism' became a term for reckless accusations. He was censured by the Senate in 1954.
The space race
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, shocking Americans. The US created NASA (1958) and boosted science education through the National Defense Education Act. President Kennedy set the goal of landing on the Moon, achieved by Apollo 11 on 20 July 1969, when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the lunar surface.
Worked example
The Marshall Plan illustrates containment through economics. By rebuilding factories, farms, and trade in Western Europe, it raised living standards, made communist parties less attractive in countries like France and Italy, and created markets for American goods. The Soviet Union refused to let Eastern European countries participate, deepening the division of Europe.
Key takeaways
The Cold War pitted the capitalist US against the communist USSR. Containment guided US policy: the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan. The Berlin Airlift, NATO, and the Berlin Wall marked the divide in Europe. The arms race produced mutually assured destruction. The Korean War (1950-1953) ended in a divided peninsula. McCarthyism fuelled fear at home. Sputnik (1957) launched the space race, which ended with the Moon landing (1969).
Flashcard
Churchill's 1946 image of divided Europe
Check your understanding
What was the main goal of the US policy of containment?