The early republic
The first presidents built a working government, established precedents, and faced divisions that created the first political parties.
Washington's presidency
George Washington, president from 1789 to 1797, set lasting precedents: forming a cabinet, using the title 'Mr President', and stepping down after two terms. In his Farewell Address, he warned against permanent foreign alliances and the dangers of political parties.
Hamilton's financial plan
Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton proposed that the federal government take on state debts, create a national bank, and promote manufacturing with tariffs. His plan strengthened national credit but sparked opposition from those who feared it favoured northern merchants and expanded federal power.
The first political parties
Disagreements produced two parties. Federalists, led by Hamilton and John Adams, favoured a strong central government, commerce, and close ties with Britain. Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, favoured states' rights, agriculture, a strict reading of the Constitution, and sympathy for France.
Adams and the Alien and Sedition Acts
During tensions with France, President John Adams signed the Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), which made it easier to deport immigrants and punished criticism of the government. Jefferson and Madison opposed them in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, arguing states could resist unconstitutional laws.
The election of 1800
Jefferson defeated Adams in 1800, the first peaceful transfer of power between opposing parties in US history, which Jefferson called a 'revolution'. The election also exposed a flaw in the electoral system, fixed by the Twelfth Amendment (1804), which has electors vote separately for president and vice president.
Marbury v. Madison
In Marbury v. Madison (1803), Chief Justice John Marshall established judicial review: the Supreme Court's power to strike down laws that conflict with the Constitution. This made the judiciary a co-equal branch and remains a foundation of American constitutional law.
The Louisiana Purchase
In 1803, Jefferson bought the vast Louisiana Territory from France for about 15 million dollars, roughly doubling the nation's size. Although Jefferson doubted the Constitution explicitly allowed it, he went ahead. The Lewis and Clark expedition (1804-1806) explored the territory to the Pacific with the help of Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman.
The War of 1812
Disputes over British seizure of American sailors (impressment), trade restrictions, and British support for Native resistance led to the War of 1812. British forces burned Washington, D.C., in 1814, but Americans defended Baltimore, inspiring 'The Star-Spangled Banner'. The war ended in a draw with the Treaty of Ghent (1814), but boosted American nationalism.
Key takeaways
Washington set precedents, including the two-term tradition, and warned against parties. Hamilton's financial plan strengthened national credit but divided Americans. Federalists and Democratic-Republicans formed the first party system. The Alien and Sedition Acts provoked state resistance. The 1800 election was a peaceful transfer of power. Marbury v. Madison established judicial review. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the nation. The War of 1812 boosted nationalism.
Flashcard
Cabinet, two terms
Check your understanding
What did Marbury v. Madison (1803) establish?