From the Articles to the Constitution
The new nation's first government proved too weak. In 1787, delegates created a new framework that still governs the United States.
The Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1781, created a loose league of states with a one-house Congress. Congress could not tax, regulate trade between states, or enforce laws, and amending the Articles required unanimous agreement. Each state had one vote. The national government struggled to pay debts or maintain order.
Achievements and failures
The Confederation's main achievement was the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which set up a process for new states to join as equals and banned slavery in the Northwest Territory. But Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787), an uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers, showed the national government's weakness and alarmed leaders.
The Constitutional Convention
In 1787, delegates met in Philadelphia, with George Washington presiding and James Madison playing a leading role in designing the new government. They replaced the Articles rather than merely revising them, creating a stronger national government with legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
The Great Compromise
Large states favoured representation by population (the Virginia Plan); small states favoured equal representation (the New Jersey Plan). The Great (Connecticut) Compromise created a two-house Congress: a House of Representatives based on population and a Senate with two senators per state.
Compromises over slavery
The Three-Fifths Compromise counted three-fifths of enslaved people for representation and taxation, boosting Southern power in the House. The Constitution also barred Congress from banning the Atlantic slave trade until 1808 and required the return of people who escaped slavery. These compromises preserved union while entrenching slavery.
Federalists and Anti-Federalists
Ratification sparked debate. Federalists, such as Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, defended the Constitution in the Federalist Papers. Anti-Federalists feared a strong central government would threaten liberty and demanded a bill of rights. The Constitution was ratified in 1788, and the government began in 1789.
The Bill of Rights
To win support, Federalists promised amendments. In 1791, the first ten amendments, the Bill of Rights, were ratified, protecting freedoms of religion, speech, press, and assembly; the right to bear arms; protections against unreasonable searches; rights of the accused; and reserving powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or the people.
Worked example
Under the Articles, if a state refused to pay its share of national expenses, Congress could only ask; it had no power to tax. Under the Constitution, Congress gained the power to levy taxes directly, regulate interstate commerce, and pass laws enforced by a national executive and courts, solving the Articles' central weakness.
Key takeaways
The Articles (1781) created a weak government that could not tax or regulate trade. The Northwest Ordinance was a success; Shays' Rebellion exposed weakness. The 1787 Convention created a stronger government with three branches. The Great Compromise produced a population-based House and equal Senate. The Three-Fifths Compromise and slave trade clause protected slavery. Federalists won ratification; the Bill of Rights (1791) protected individual liberties.
Flashcard
First US government, 1781
Check your understanding
What did the Great Compromise establish?