The new imperialism
In the late 1800s, industrial powers seized vast territories in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, in a burst of expansion historians call the new imperialism.
Motives
Industrial nations sought raw materials (rubber, cotton, minerals), markets for manufactured goods, places to invest, strategic bases and coaling stations for steamships, and national prestige. Ideologies such as Social Darwinism and claims of a 'civilising mission' were used to justify domination, rooted in racist beliefs about European superiority.
Tools of empire
Industrial technology made conquest easier: steamships and railways moved troops and goods; the telegraph sped communication; quinine helped Europeans survive malaria; and rapid-firing weapons such as the Maxim gun gave small European forces devastating firepower against larger armies.
The Scramble for Africa
In 1870, Europeans controlled about a tenth of Africa, mostly coastal areas. At the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), European powers set rules for claiming African territory without African participation. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. Borders drawn in Europe often split or combined peoples arbitrarily.
The Congo Free State
King Leopold II of Belgium ruled the Congo Free State as his personal possession from 1885 to 1908. Forced labour to collect rubber, enforced by violence including mutilation, caused millions of deaths. International outrage, spurred by activists such as E. D. Morel and Roger Casement, led Belgium to take over the colony in 1908.
African resistance
Africans resisted in many ways. Ethiopia under Emperor Menelik II defeated Italy at the Battle of Adwa in 1896, preserving its independence. The Asante fought the British; the Herero and Nama rose against German rule in South West Africa (1904-1908), and German forces responded with genocide. The Maji Maji rebellion (1905-1907) fought German rule in East Africa.
British India
The British East India Company gained control over much of India from the 1750s. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British government took direct control, and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877. British rule built railways and universities but drained wealth, suppressed local industries, and presided over devastating famines.
Southeast Asia and the Pacific
France colonised Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia); the Netherlands controlled the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia); Britain took Burma and Malaya; the United States took the Philippines. Siam (Thailand) remained independent by playing rivals against each other and modernising. Pacific islands were divided among European powers, the US, and Japan.
Worked example
At the Battle of Omdurman in Sudan in 1898, British and Egyptian forces armed with Maxim guns and modern rifles killed about 10,000 or more Sudanese fighters while losing fewer than 50 men. The battle illustrates how industrial weapons created enormous imbalances, allowing small colonial armies to defeat much larger forces.
Key takeaways
The new imperialism was driven by economic needs, strategy, prestige, and racist ideologies. Steamships, railways, quinine, and the Maxim gun enabled conquest. The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) launched the Scramble for Africa; by 1914 only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent. Leopold II's Congo saw mass atrocities. Africans resisted, notably at Adwa (1896). Britain ruled India directly after 1857. Southeast Asia and the Pacific were colonised, except Siam.
Flashcard
Late 1800s burst of colonial expansion
Check your understanding
Why did Ethiopia remain independent during the Scramble for Africa?