The Enlightenment
In the 1600s-1700s, Enlightenment thinkers applied reason to society and government, challenging tradition and inspiring revolutions.
What the Enlightenment was
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe and its colonies, building on the Scientific Revolution, that emphasised reason, individual rights, progress, and scepticism of traditional authority. Its ideas spread through books, newspapers, salons, and coffee houses.
Hobbes and Locke
Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan (1651), argued that without government life would be 'nasty, brutish, and short', so people should accept a strong sovereign. John Locke argued that people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property, that government rests on the consent of the governed, and that people may overthrow governments that violate their rights.
Montesquieu and Rousseau
Montesquieu, in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), argued for separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny, deeply influencing the US Constitution. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract (1762) argued that legitimate government expresses the 'general will' of the people.
Voltaire and religious tolerance
Voltaire championed freedom of speech and religious tolerance and attacked the Catholic Church's power and intolerance. Enlightenment writers such as Denis Diderot compiled the Encyclopédie, collecting knowledge on science, technology, and philosophy to spread reason widely.
Economics and society
Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations (1776) argued that free markets, guided by self-interest and competition (an 'invisible hand'), promote prosperity, and criticised mercantilism. Cesare Beccaria argued against torture and the death penalty. Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) argued for women's education and equality.
Enlightened absolutism
Some monarchs, such as Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria, adopted Enlightenment reforms, such as religious toleration, legal reform, and education, while keeping absolute power. Their reforms were often limited.
Limits and contradictions
Many Enlightenment thinkers spoke of universal rights while accepting slavery, colonialism, and the exclusion of women. Some, however, used Enlightenment principles to attack slavery. The tension between universal ideals and unequal practice drove later struggles for rights.
Worked example
The US Declaration of Independence draws on Locke: 'all men are created equal' with unalienable rights, governments derive 'just powers from the consent of the governed', and people may 'alter or abolish' destructive governments. The US Constitution's three branches reflect Montesquieu. These documents show Enlightenment ideas becoming political practice.
Key takeaways
The Enlightenment emphasised reason, rights, and progress. Hobbes favoured strong government; Locke argued for natural rights and consent. Montesquieu proposed separation of powers; Rousseau the general will. Voltaire championed tolerance; Diderot compiled the Encyclopédie. Adam Smith praised free markets; Wollstonecraft argued for women's rights. Some monarchs adopted limited reforms. Universal ideals coexisted with slavery and exclusion.
Flashcard
Movement emphasising reason and rights
Check your understanding
Whose idea of separating government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches influenced the US Constitution?