The rise and spread of Islam
Islam began in Arabia in the 600s and within a century its followers ruled an empire from Spain to Central Asia, fostering a flourishing civilisation.
Muhammad and the origins of Islam
Muhammad was born in Mecca around 570 CE. Muslims believe he received revelations from God (Allah) through the angel Gabriel, beginning around 610, later recorded in the Quran. Facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers moved to Medina in 622, the Hijra, which marks year one of the Islamic calendar. By his death in 632, much of Arabia was united under Islam.
Core beliefs
Islam is monotheistic and recognises earlier prophets including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, with Muhammad as the final prophet. The Five Pillars are the declaration of faith (shahada), prayer five times daily (salat), charity (zakat), fasting during Ramadan (sawm), and pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) for those able.
Sunni and Shia
After Muhammad's death, disagreement over succession divided Muslims. Sunnis accepted the elected caliphs, beginning with Abu Bakr; Shia Muslims believed leadership belonged to Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali and his descendants. Today, Sunnis are the large majority; Shia Muslims are the majority in Iran and Iraq.
The caliphates
Under the early caliphs and the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750), Arab armies conquered the Persian Empire, much of the Byzantine Empire's territory, North Africa, and most of Spain. The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) moved the capital to Baghdad, which became one of the world's largest and most cultured cities.
The Islamic golden age
In Baghdad's House of Wisdom and elsewhere, scholars translated and built on Greek, Persian, and Indian learning. Al-Khwarizmi developed algebra (the word comes from his book); Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote a medical encyclopedia used in Europe for centuries; scholars advanced astronomy, optics, and chemistry. Hindu-Arabic numerals reached Europe through these channels.
Trade and culture
The Islamic world linked the Mediterranean, Africa, and Asia. Muslim merchants traded across the Indian Ocean and Sahara, spreading Islam peacefully to West Africa, East Africa, and Southeast Asia. Cities such as Córdoba in al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) were centres of learning where Muslims, Jews, and Christians interacted.
Later Islamic empires
The Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258, ending the Abbasid Caliphate. Later, three large Islamic empires arose: the Ottoman Empire, which captured Constantinople in 1453; the Safavid Empire in Persia, which made Shia Islam the state religion; and the Mughal Empire in India, which built the Taj Mahal.
Worked example
Algebra illustrates the golden age's role in world knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi, working in Baghdad around 820, wrote a book on solving equations, drawing on Indian and Greek mathematics. Translated into Latin in the 1100s, it introduced methods and the word 'algebra' to Europe; even the word 'algorithm' comes from his name.
Key takeaways
Muhammad began preaching around 610; the Hijra (622) begins the Islamic calendar. Islam's Five Pillars are shahada, salat, zakat, sawm, and hajj. Succession disputes created Sunni and Shia branches. The Umayyads and Abbasids built vast caliphates; Baghdad became a great centre. Golden age scholars advanced algebra, medicine, and astronomy. Trade spread Islam to Africa and Asia. The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires followed.
Flashcard
Prophet of Islam, born about 570 CE
Check your understanding
What caused the division between Sunni and Shia Muslims?