America becomes a world power
Around 1900, the United States expanded overseas, acquiring territories and asserting influence in Latin America and Asia.
Motives for expansion
Americans pursued overseas expansion for new markets for industrial goods, naval bases (influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan's argument that sea power was key to greatness), a belief in spreading 'civilisation' (often with racist assumptions), and competition with European empires.
Hawaii
American sugar planters, backed by US Marines, overthrew Hawaii's Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. The United States annexed Hawaii in 1898. In 1993, Congress formally apologised for the US role in the overthrow.
The Spanish-American War
In 1898, the United States went to war with Spain, partly in support of Cuban independence and inflamed by sensational 'yellow journalism' and the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbour. The war lasted only months. Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the US, and Cuba became nominally independent under heavy US influence.
The Philippine-American War
Filipinos who had fought Spain for independence then fought the US from 1899 until about 1902, with sporadic fighting after. The war killed thousands of American soldiers and hundreds of thousands of Filipinos, many from disease and famine. Anti-imperialists, including Mark Twain, opposed the war. The Philippines became independent in 1946.
The Open Door and China
Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Notes (1899-1900) called for equal trading rights for all nations in China and for preserving China's territorial integrity, aiming to protect American trade against European spheres of influence.
The Panama Canal
President Theodore Roosevelt supported Panama's independence from Colombia in 1903 and then gained rights to build a canal. The Panama Canal opened in 1914, cutting sea journeys between the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically. The US transferred the canal to Panama at the end of 1999.
The Roosevelt Corollary
Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904) claimed the US could intervene in Latin American countries to maintain order and prevent European involvement: 'speak softly and carry a big stick'. The US repeatedly sent troops to countries such as Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic in the following decades.
Worked example
Debating annexing the Philippines in 1899, supporters argued it offered a base for trade with China and a duty to 'uplift' Filipinos; opponents argued that ruling people without their consent contradicted the Declaration of Independence. The Senate approved the treaty, but the debate between imperialists and anti-imperialists shaped American foreign policy arguments for decades.
Key takeaways
Markets, naval power, missionary ideas, and rivalry motivated expansion. Hawaii's queen was overthrown in 1893 and the islands annexed in 1898. The Spanish-American War (1898) gave the US Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. A bloody war followed in the Philippines. The Open Door sought equal access to China. The Panama Canal opened in 1914. The Roosevelt Corollary justified intervention in Latin America.
Flashcard
Argued sea power drives national greatness
Check your understanding
Which territories did the United States gain from Spain in 1898?