Forgetting and memory errors
Forgetting is normal, and even confident memories can be wrong.
Why we forget
Hermann Ebbinghaus found that forgetting is rapid at first and then levels off, the forgetting curve. Encoding failure means the information never got stored. Interference occurs when other memories get in the way: proactive interference is old information disrupting new learning, and retroactive interference is new learning disrupting old memories.
Memory is reconstructive
When we recall, we rebuild memories and can add errors. Elizabeth Loftus showed the misinformation effect: people who saw a car crash and were later asked how fast the cars were going when they 'smashed' recalled higher speeds, and some even remembered broken glass that was not there. This has major implications for eyewitness testimony.
Improving memory
Effective strategies include spacing study over time instead of cramming, testing yourself (retrieval practice), elaborating on material by linking it to what you know, and using mnemonic devices such as acronyms. Sleep helps consolidate memories, so all-night cramming can backfire.
Flashcard
Rapid early forgetting that then levels off
Check your understanding
After learning a new phone number, you struggle to remember your old one. This is: